Spread of Communism, Increasing Tensions, and the War
Chinese Civil War
Events, Outcome, Long-Term Impact: Before the Chinese Civil War, tensions were increasing between the nationalist government of China, known as the Kuomintang, and the Communist Party of China (CCP). Chiang Kai-Shek lead the Kuomintang during the civil war and Mao Zedong lead the CCP. Prior to the war, both sides attempted to be unified with the help of the Soviet Union; however, internal rivalry continued to build up, and this rivalry turned into the Chinese Civil War. Chiang Kai-Shek's goal was to eliminate the CCP so that the members of Kuomintang arrested and murdered the leaders of the CCP. This event is known as the Shanghai Massacre. Mao Zedong reacted to the massacre by leading an uprising, known as the Autumn Harvest Uprising. The Autumn Harvest Uprising failed but it initiated the beginning of the civil war in China. In 1934, Mao Zedong and his army went on a series of marches known as the Long March. It lasted from October 1934 to October of the following year. They marched from Jiangxi, in southern China, to Shaanxi, in northern China, in order to escape the brutality of the Kuomintang. Only 8,000, out of the 80,000 soldiers that went on the march, survived. With the support from the United States, Chiang Kai-Shek ordered the Kuomintang army to invade the major cities in China. The CCP attacked Northern China with the support of the Soviet Union. Neither side was willing to surrender. In 1948, the CCP was taking control of nationalist cities and in doing so, gained the support of the majority in China. In October 1949, the CCP captured Beijing and declared victory. They called themselves the People's Republic of China. The nationalists, however, fled to Taiwan and established their own government known as the Republic of China. Today, both government still claim to be China's legal government. The conflict was never fully settled and China is still considered a communist country. The government is split into China and Taiwan. Communist vs Nationalists: Nationalists:Ironically, reform paved the way for a more radical political transformation. As Qing rule was shown to be increasingly bankrupt, revolutionary and nationalistic uprisings gained widespread public support, even among the conservative scholar-gentry. Finally, revolution broke out at Wuchang in Central China on Oct. 10, 1911. On Jan. 1, 1912, Sun Yat-sen, a longtime activist, was elected provisional president of the Chinese Republic. On February 12 the last Qing emperor abdicated, ending not only the Qing empire but also more than 3,000 years of Chinese monarchy. Although Sun is regarded as the father of the Chinese Republic, he was succeeded just a few months later by Yuan Shikai, a late-Qing military strongman who was widely believed to be the only statesman then powerful enough to combat not only lingering Manchu reaction-ism but also foreign aggression. Yuan soon dissolved parliament and attempted to restore the monarchy. After Yuan's death in 1916 and until 1928, rival groups of militarists with the support of various Western nations contended for power. China had once more entered an age of domination by warlords. Although politically retrogressive, the period witnessed a revolution in Chinese thought and culture collectively known as the May Fourth movement. The result was an intensified nationalism and struggle against imperialism, an enhanced knowledge of Western liberal ideas, a spreading attack on the old Confucian hierarchical social order, and a literary renaissance that created a new vernacular writing style. The period also marked the introduction of Marxism into China and the convening of the first congress of the Chinese Communist party in 1921, with Mao Zedong in attendance. Communists: The war proved a boon for the CCP. As late as 1934 to 1935, KMT pressure had forced the CCP to quit the Henan-Jiangxi (Honan-Kiangsi) region and embark upon the 8,000-km (5,000-mi) Long March to the northwestern frontier in Shaanxi. Of the 80,000 who began the journey, only 20,000 reached their destination. It was during the Long March that Mao Zedong achieved unrivaled power in the Communist party. While the KMT bore the brunt of the frontline fighting against the Japanese, Mao seized upon nationalistic fervor and undertook various economic reform programs and popular mobilization in the less accessible border areas. By the end of the war in the Pacific, the CCP was in control of a region in North China with a population of 100 million. During the 1940s a Chinese form of Marxism-Leninism, or Maoism, built upon a peasant rather than a proletarian base, was successfully tested in action and became the new Communist orthodoxy in China. Although materially supported by the United States and at first far superior to the CCP in numbers, the KMT lacked an inspiring ideology or genuine economic reform program. Its leadership grew increasingly out of touch with the masses. Defensively entrenched in the cities, it suffered the debilitating effects of wartime inflation and corruption and was increasingly outmaneuvered by the CCP. By mid-1948 the Communists equaled the Nationalists in numbers. Finally, Mao's armies crossed the Yangtze River in 1949 and overwhelmed the Nationalists. KMT military remnants and political leaders fled to Taiwan, which the Japanese had returned to China at the end of the war. There, the Nationalists continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China and preside over an economic miracle that was nurtured by U.S. aid , a successful land reform program, and sound economic planning. Mao's policies: Mao tried to establish a policy, known as the "Great Leap Forward", but it failed. He established this policy in an attempt to modernize China's economy, but it essentially just made it worse. The policy was made to adapt new techniques for industry and agriculture. People were placed into communes, which were supposed to be perfect areas for living. But, as a result of overworking everything, a lack of or broken machinery, and droughts, the Great Leap Forward did not work out. Mao also launched a policy known as the "Cultural Revolution" to assert his authority over the government, as he believed that the communist government leaders were trying to undermine his authority and take China for themselves. Mao used the youth to get rid of the "impure" elements that he believed existed in China, and he wanted the youth to bring back the glorious elements of China. Mao closed schools and made the youth form their own mini parties, which eventually turned into his own personal cult that harassed elder Chinese citizens. The Cultural Revolution came to an end after Mao died, and an education system was put back into place. Mao tried to impose many policies during his time of rule either in an attempt to organize or help his people, or to establish his authority. Some policies worked greater than others, some policies did not work at all.
Vietnam War
Stopping communism was the main priority for the United States after World War II. France controlled Vietnam early in the 1900's, but Vietnam leaders did not like this, so they turned their direction to communism, with Ho Chi Minh as their leader. Minh led rebellions against France, and France responded by jailing protesters, including Minh. But, Minh was able to escape, and he returned to Vietnam in 1941. Frustrated by France controlling major cities, Vietnamese nationalists and communists joined together to defeat the French troops. They used hit-and-run tactics to defeat them, and in 1954, France suffered a major defeat at Dien Bien Phu. President Eisenhower saw this as a threat, and he called this threat the domino theory. When a domino is knocked over, it will continue to fall over and hit other dominoes in its way. He saw this as South East Asian nations succumbing to communism one by one, and as one nation became communist, its neighbor would as well. After the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu, an international peace conference was held in Geneva to decide the dividing of the nation. The agreement was that Vietnam was divided at the 17°N Latitude where the North was given to Minh's Communist rule, and the South was given to the United States and France, who imposed an anti-communist government there, which was dictatedby Ngo Dinh Diem. Opposition grew against his government as a result of its corruption, and the Vietcong, trained soldiers from the North, gained control in the South. In 1964 United States sent in military after North Vietnamese patrol boats attacked US destroyers. By 1965, 500,000 men were on Vietnamese soil. But, there were dilemmas that the United States faced in Vietnam. For one, they were new to the unknown terrain and were steadily becoming unpopular with the people. When the United States couldn't win decisive victories, they turned to air assault and bombed North Vietnamese hideouts. This didn't rub off to well with the people, and it only let people grow more opposed to the South Vietnamese government. Subsequently, Americans began to withdraw troops. President Nixon called this plan "vietnamization", where they slowly pull out troops to increase South Vietnam control of the war. But, two years later, North Vietnam took over South Vietnam, and all of the United States' efforts seemed useless. After the war, North Vietnam took over the South Vietnam. The North replaced the South's capital, Saigon, with the name Ho Chi Minh City. After this, many civilians fled to other areas on large ships. Yet, 200,000 were killed on the trip, and only 70,000 were able to make it to the United States and Canada. The Vietnam War cost 1.5 million Vietnamese lives and 58,000 American lives This proved the war as costly, and it affected other countries, like Cambodia, in the future (see Cambodia & Khmer Rouge for more).
Civil War in Nicaragua
The civil war in Nicaragua took place from 1974 to 1979, and it is also sometimes referred to as the Sandinista Revolution, as they helped lead the revolution and took control of the government after it. The civil war was caused by a number of
reasons.A harsh ruler, poverty, and problems with the environment were the
leading causes of the civil war.The Somoza family had ruled in, or had some part in the government of
Nicaragua for over forty years, from 1936 to 1979.The Somoza family’s way of ruling was cruel,
as they only catered to elite people, and did not care to help even the average
citizen of Nicaragua.The poor were treated awfully, as they were denied education and
purposely kept illiterate, as the Somoza family only intended for them to be
workers.As a result of this, many impoverished people started to become angry
at the lack of aid and unfair treatment that they faced.The people were enraged with the corrupt
government, and they were enraged with the growing poverty in Nicaragua as a
result of the lack of government support.An earthquake further increased the anger of
the poor when it hit Managua, the capitol of Nicaragua, in 1972, devastating
the place and resulting in around 6,000 casualties, and many more injuries.Yet, when money was given to aid Nicaragua
after this earthquake, none of it was used to help the people, but instead
President Somoza gave it to the elites.Further environmental problems included an
increase of waste being dumped in rivers, and the destruction of habitats, and
this horrible treatment of the environment was all done by the government,
which further increased a feeling of dislike towards the Somoza rule.The corrupt government, increasing poverty,
and environmental problems then led to a civil war ignited by the Sandinista
National Liberation Front, as they kidnapped government officials in 1974,
which led to a violent clash between the government and the people, excluding
the elites, and nationwide strikes.This violent clash lasted up until 1979, when Somoza fled Nicaragua,
and the Sandinistas took control of the government. The Sandinistas’ government leaned
towards left, or communist, ideologies. So, this impacted the United
States relationship with Nicaragua, as it led to tensions. The United
States began to support the Contras, a group that aimed to defeat the
Sandinistas, to try and get rid of communist influence in Nicaragua. So,
this also increased Cold War tensions. The Contras eventually did come
into power, and today the president of Nicaragua does not exhibit as many
communist characteristics in his rule, although his rule is sometimes similar
to that of a dictatorship. Yet, people do not mind that he behaves like a
dictator, as his policies have aided many poor people.
Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan
Later in the Cold War, the Soviet Union began to impose new foreign policies, as they began to try to expand their influence into other places such as Africa and Afghanistan.When a newly established Marxist regime in
Afghanistan was experiencing resistance from the people living there, the
Soviet Union, with their new foreign policy, decided to send troops across the
Afghanistan border in 1979 to help that Marxist regime.The occupation did not go well.The reforms made and the measures taken by the Soviet
Union hurt the people of Afghanistan more than they helped them.The situations of the poor people worsened as a
result of the economic measures taken, and tribal leaders felt distressed as a
result of the land reforms that were made.This caused multiple uprisings, and many people died
as a result of torture or executions that served as a punishment for the
uprisings.Increasing resistance, and an overall failure to help Afghanistan and
establish influence there led to the Soviet Union’s eventual withdraw from
Afghanistan. This occupation of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union impacted the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union. The two forces had previously been working to relieve tensions, but tensions began to grow again as a result of this occupation. The United States saw the Soviet Union occupation of Afghanistan as the Soviet Union attempting to establish power in the oil fields of the Persian Gulf. These speculations resulted in the United States making the Carter Doctrine, which said that the United States would, if needed, use military forces to uphold their access to Middle Eastern oil reserves. It was later revealed that although the Soviet Union had a slight interest in the oil of the Persian Gulf, their focus was more on spreading influence. Overall, the Soviet Union occupation of Afghanistan led to growing tensions and suspicions between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Korean War
Following World War II, Korea became divided into two countries, North Korea and South Korea. This split was made by the 38th parallel, where the North was controlled by Soviets, and the South was controlled by the United States. However, in 1949, the United States and the Soviet Union withdrew soldiers from Korea. Shortly after this, the Soviets began to supply North Korea with weapons, and in the summer in June 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, taking most of South Korea's land away. This put President Truman's containment policy to test. The containment policy hoped that all communist governments would soon fall apart if they were prevented from expanding their influence. By September 1950, the United Nations (composed mostly of Americans) decided to send their troops across the 38th parallel into North Korea, where they pushed them all the way up to China borders. China responded by sending troops to North Korea where they forced the United Nations out. But, two years later, UN forces were able to regain control of South Korea, and finally, in 1953, the United Nations and North Korea signed a cease-fire agreement, which stopped aggressive actions between the two forces. In the end, the border between the two countries was set near the 38th parallel, almost exactly what it was before the war. In all, the war cost 4 million lives in total. The impact of Korean War still affects both countries to this day. South Korea now has democratic institutions with free elections, and has one of the highest economic growth rates in the world. On the other hand, North Korea is still struggling because of the war. Dictator Kim Jong II now rules communist North Korea, and he has developed mass nuclear weapons that put the country in serious economic issues.
Castro & the Cuban Revolution
Fidel Castro became the leader of Cuba in 1959 after he led the Cuban Rebellion, establishing the first communist regime in the west. Castro was born in Cuba on August 13, 1926, and was very involved in his country. He intended to run for office in Cuba in 1952, but the elections were cancelled after a man named Fulgencio Batista overthrew the government and established a more left wing government. Castro was angered by this, as he rejected democracy, and he wanted an armed revolution against Batista. Castro and his brother,Raul Castro, led an unsuccessful uprising against Batista in 1953, which resulted in Castro being sentenced to prison for fifteen years. Yet, he did not serve that whole time, as he was released amnesty. He then fled to Mexico where he joined forces with Marxist Ernesto Guevara. They went back to Cuba in 1956 with support from their followers, who were also known as the "26 of July Movement", and started a revolution by means of a guerrilla war against Batista's government. Castro won, and he became Prime Minister of Cuba in February 1959, and he then introduced the Marxist-Leninist Programme. Eventually, Castro became a totalitarian ruler of the new communist Cuba that he created. The immediate impact of the Cuban Revolution was that thousands of Cubans, who were fearful of Castro and his new regime, fled Cuba. Many fled to the United States, which resulted in the United States enacting immigration restrictions on Cubans. Also, Cuba then became associated with the Soviet Union, which led to the Cuban Missile Crisis, and caused Cold War tensions to grow. Furthermore, for a while, United States citizens were not allowed to visit Cuba. Even today it is not easy to visit Cuba, as there are many regulations. United States citizens are only allowed to go to Cuba for specific and approved reasons. Although, recently, the government has been easing off on the regulations.
Depicted: Fidel Castro celebrating the fall of Batista's government, and the start of a new communist era
Cuban Missile Crisis
Cold War tensions escalated to a peak during the Cuban Missile Crisis, which took place in 1962. As a result of the new relations between the Soviet Union and Cuba that formed when Castro overthrew the Cuban government and established a totalitarian and communist regime, the Soviet Union, led by Khrushchev, planned to put nuclear missiles in Cuba. This alarmed the United States, as Cuba is close to them, and therefore the United States would be in striking distance of the missiles. So, the United States did not want the Soviet Union to place nuclear missiles in Cuba. Although, as the Soviet Union pointed out, this was hypocritical of the United States since they had nuclear missiles in Turkey that were withing striking distance of the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, when the United States became aware that the Soviet Union was sending fleets containing nuclear missiles to Cuba, President Kennedy, the president of the United States at that time, made a decision to enforce a blockade on Cuba in the hopes of preventing the Soviet Union from placing nuclear missiles there. Tensions were extremely high during this time, and many felt that the world was on the brink of a nuclear war. The leaders of the two forces, Khrushchev and President Kennedy, then peacefully met during this blockade, and they established an agreement. Khrushchev agreed to not put missiles in Cuba in return for President Kennedy promising that the United States would not attack Cuba. The possibility of a nuclear war was averted, for now. People were frightened by how close the world came to a nuclear war during the Cuban Missile Crisis, and so one immediate impact of the Cuban Missile Crisis was the creation of a hotline between the United States and the Soviet Union. This was created to establish a quick and direct way of communication between the two countries in the hopes of preventing a future crisis like the Cuban Missile Crisis. Also, the Cuban Missile Crisis resulted in further efforts, such as prohibiting nuclear testing in the atmosphere, to attempt to reduce tensions between the countries. Even today impacts of the Cuban Missile Crisis can be seen. Some old houses still standing today that are put up for sale sometimes contain bomb shelters inside of them that people installed during the Cuban Missile Crisis because of the fear of the possibility of a nuclear war was very high for the duration of that time.
Cambodia & the Khmer Rouge
After the Vietnam War, Cambodia still had many problems. They were controlled by communists, and they were getting bombed by United States because North Vietnam was using them as a shelter. In 1975, communist rebel,s called the Khmer Rouge, set up a very strict communist government under the leadership of Pol Pot. Pol Pot killed two million people (1/4 of population) to convert Cambodia's people to communism. Vietnam stepped in and invaded the communist rebels in 1978 . They eventually overthrew the Khmer Rouge and installed a less repressive government. The impact of Cambodia 's problems during the Cold War time period was disastrous. The Khmer Rouge almost carried out a complete genocide of the entire population of Cambodia, which is similar to Hitler's mass murder of the Jews. Although the this time period was rough for the nation, they were able to bounce back in 1993. Under the management of UN's peacekeepers, Cambodia was able to establish a democratic constitution and hold free elections.
Rebellion in Eastern Europe: Hungary & Czechoslovakia
Hungary: After WWII, the Soviet Union kept its influence over the countries of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, and East Germany. Protest movements in Eastern Europe were gaining momentum during the 50's and 60's. These protest movements posed a threat to Soviet Control. After the death of Stalin, a leader named Nikita Khrushchev took over. Khrushchev started his policy of destalinization. In October 1956, the Hungarian army and protesters attempted to overthrow the government, which was controlled by the Soviets, and they did so by storming the capital, Budapest. A new Hungarian Communist leader named Imre Nagy then formed a new government, promised free elections, and forced the Soviets out of Hungary. Consequently, the Soviets returned with tanks and an infantry in November. The Hungarians were no match for the Soviets, and therefore a pro-Soviet government was formed and Nagy was executed. Czechoslovakia: After the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, Khrushchev lost a lot of power. In 1964, he was voted to be removed, and he was replaced with Leonid Brezhnev. Brezhnev enforced new laws that took away people's basic human rights, such as freedom of speech, and he had the government censor what reached the public. He went as far as to send out secret police to investigate and arrest anyone who opposed his policies. In 1968, Alexander Dubcek, a communist leader, modified the controls on censorship to give his country a more humane side. On August 20, Brezhnev sent armed forces from the Warsaw Pact nations into Czechoslovakia. Brezhnev affirmed that he had the right to forbid his countries from refusing communism. This was known as the Brezhnev Doctrine.
US Role in Iran
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini
The United States played a role in Iran as they worked with the Shah of Iran since the Shah safeguarded the United State’s interests of the oil in the Persian Gulf. There was an unequal distribution of wealth in Iran that escalated when an unexpected oil boom occurred, resulting in decreased oil prices and an increase in poverty. The Shah had trouble handling the economic situation, and between his inability to help the economic situation to the peoples’ liking, and the opposition that already existed against him, the people of Iran began to protest, and they sought to overthrow the Shah. They wanted a constitutional monarchy, and they wanted an Islamic state. The people began with peaceful protests against the Shah, but the peaceful protests eventually escalated into attacks, such as the destroying and burning of buildings. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeinihelped lead the revolution, although he got into trouble and was sent to Paris.The Shah then tried to appease the people,
but this did nothing, and their dedication to overthrowing the Shah only grew
as time went on.The amount of strikes being
held began to rapidly increase, and the Iranian economy was shut down in 1978
as a result of a mass of strikes.The people
brought the oil industry to a stop, demanded that the SAVAK, the secret police
force led by the Shah that persecuted those who went against the government, be
eliminated, and demanded that Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini come back.The Shah was forced to leave Iran in January 1979,
and Ayatollah returned in February 1979 and became the supreme leader of a new
Islamic Republic. The Islamic revolution and the overthrow of the Shah by Ayatollah and the people of Iran greatly impacted and hindered the relationship between the United States and Iran. Ayatollah did not want any western countries to interfere with the oil industry in the Persian Gulf anymore since that was one of the main causes of the economic problems that Iran previously faced. Also, Iran did not like how the United States continued to help the Shah after he was overthrown. So, there were increased tensions between the United States and Iran as a result of the overthrow of the Shah, as Ayatollah was not as willing with work with the United States, and he wanted to cut off their contact to the old in the Persian Gulf. Today, the relationship between the United States and Iran is still not well, as the United States is concerned with Iran’s nuclear program, and the public’s fear of terrorism increases tensions between the two nations.
Space Race
The Space Race was a result of years of deep mistrust and despite between the United States and the Soviet Union, and the deep international conflicts that had occurred. The superpowers had been rivals for decades, and had always been mistrustful and suspicious towards one another. This mistrust was based on political, moral and economic beliefs that were engraved into both systems that could be traced back since the Russian civil war in 1919. Communism and capitalism were mutual enemies. For communism to succeed, it saw the need to eradicate capitalism to liberate the oppressed and get rid of corruption, whilst capitalism saw liberty and free market as threatened by communism. Both systems had been constantly seeking ways to gain the upper hand. Such was seen when both competed in developing nuclear arms, and later in the competition of excelling in space flight. As both superpowers had developed nuclear weapons by the end of the 1960's, it would be devastating if they both were to utilize these weapons. The superpowers would not only destroy one another, but the entire world, causing Mutually Assured Destruction. As a consequence, the Cold War and the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union had to be carried out by other means. A great example of this is the sponsorship of third world countries as satellite states, such as North Korea, South Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan. It was a way of putting those countries in important strategic positions, and establishing spheres of influence. In this sense the space race was similar as it provided another means which the superpowers could compare and compete without direct military conflict. The space race would help prove the superiority and prestige of both system. One remarkable achievement of the Space Race included the launching of Sputnik 1, the first Earth satellite to reach space and orbit the Earth, by the Soviet Union in 1957. Also, of course, another remarkable achievement was made by the United States in 1969 when a man, Neil Armstrong, landed on the moon. So, the Space Race resulted in the rapid development of new technologies as a result of competition.